ARTICLE

Specific Localization of Membrane Dipeptidase and Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV in Secretion Granules of Two Different Pancreatic Islet Cells

Correspondence to: Denis LeBel, Dept. of Biology, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1K 2R1.

	Summary

Top Summary Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited

Endocrine cells require several protein convertases to process the precursors of hormonal peptides that they secrete. In addition to the convertases, which have a crucial role in the maturation of prohormones, many other proteases are present in endocrine cells, the roles of which are less well established. Two of these proteases, dipeptidyl peptidase IV (EC 3.4.14.5) and membrane dipeptidase (EC 3.4.13.19), have been immunocytochemically localized in the endocrine pancreas of the pig. Membrane dipeptidase was present exclusively in cells of the islet of Langerhans that were positive for the pancreatic polypeptide, whereas dipeptidyl peptidase IV was restricted to cells positive for glucagon. Both enzymes were observed in the content of secretory granules and therefore would be released into the interstitial space as the granules undergo exocytosis. At this location they could act on secretions of other islet cells. The relative concentration of dipeptidyl peptidase IV was lower in dense glucagon granules, where the immunoreactivity to glucagon was higher, and vice versa for light granules. This suggests that, in A-cells, dipeptidyl peptidase IV could be sent for degradation in the endosomal/lysosomal compartment during the process of granule maturation or could be removed from granules for continuous release into the interstitial space. The intense proteolytic activity that takes place in the endocrine pancreas could produce many potential dipeptide substrates for membrane dipeptidase. (J Histochem Cytochem 47:489–497, 1999)

Key Words: endocrine pancreas, dipeptidyl peptidase IV, membrane dipeptidase, -cells, PP cells, secretion granule, glucagon, pancreatic polypeptide

	Introduction

Top Summary Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited

Endocrine cells require an elaborate set of proteolytic convertases for the maturation of their secreted hormones because all of them are synthesized in the form of precursors. Most of the endoproteases directly involved in the maturation of hormone precursors are well characterized (see Halban and Irminger 1994 for review). However, several additional proteases present in endocrine cells have not been clearly identified with a precise role in endogenous hormone maturation. Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV; CD26; EC 3.4.14.5), which is specifically localized in A-cell secretory granules (Poulsen et al. 1993 ), is an example of one such protease. DPP-IV is a widely expressed glycosylated ectoenzyme that preferentially cleaves dipeptides from the N-terminus of peptides when Pro is the P1 residue (see Trugnan et al. 1997 for review). Pro may be replaced by Ala and, to a lesser extent, by Ser, Gly, Val, and Leu. DPP-IV is a serine protease that has been shown to cleave a variety of biologically active peptides, including substance P, ß-casomorphin, members of the vasoactive polypeptide–glucagon family (gastric inhibitory peptide, truncated glucagon-like peptide-1), and the neuropeptide Y–peptideYY family (Frohman et al. 1989 ; Mentlain et al. 1993 ; Mentlein et al. 1993 ; Medeiros and Turner 1996 ). Another widely distributed ectoenzyme is membrane dipeptidase (MDP; leukotriene D4 hydrolase; EC 3.4.13.19) (see Keynan et al. 1996 for review). MDP cleaves dipeptides with a broad spectrum of specificity and is involved in the in vivo metabolism of glutathione and leukotriene D4. MDP is a zinc metalloenzyme that is attached to the plasma membrane by a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor (Keynan et al. 1996 ). In previous studies we have reported that MDP is present in the pancreatic acinar cell membranes, with a particularly high level in the secretory granule membrane (Hooper et al. 1997a ; LeBel et al. 1998 ). Although MDP is synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where it is attached to a GPI anchor, the protein is released from the membrane in the granule matrix to end up in exocrine secretions (Hooper et al. 1997a ). The role of MDP in the exocrine pancreas is not immediately apparent, because secretory products do not require proteolytic maturation before their discharge into the duodenum.

In this study we confirm that DPP-IV is strictly confined to pancreatic A-cells and that MDP is also present in only one type of islet of Langerhans cell in the pig, the pancreatic polypeptide (PP) cells. Like DPP-IV, MDP is also present in the content of secretion granules. Finally, both enzymes were observed in granules undergoing exocytosis for their release within the islet interstitial space, where they could act on secretory products of neighboring cells.

The location of MDP in the endocrine pancreas is better justified than in the exocrine pancreas, because intense proteolytic processing takes place in the islets, thus producing numbers of potential substrates.

	Materials and Methods

Top Summary Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited

Antibodies
Antibodies were generated against affinity-purified pig kidney MDP and against pig kidney DPP-IV as previously described (Littlewood et al. 1989 ; Howell et al. 1993 ). Antibodies specific to porcine glucagon (NCL-GLUCp) were from Novo Castra Labs (Newcastle, UK). Antibodies to somatostatin (S309-JA3-81), a kind gift of Dr. R. Benoit (McGill University, Montréal, Canada), were previously characterized as specific for somatostatin 28 (Ravazzola et al. 1983 ). Antibodies to serotonin (B56-1) and PP (B32-1) were from Euro-Diagnostica (Malmö, Sweden). Anti-insulin antibodies (A564) were from Dako (Carpinteria, CA). All the primary antibodies were produced in rabbits.

Tissue Fixation and Embedding
Immediately after sacrifice, pieces of tissue (1 mm³) were taken from different regions of the pancreas of a 47-day-old pig (20 kg) and were fixed at room temperature (RT) for 120 min in 2% formaldehyde, 0.25% glutaraldehyde buffered with 100 mM PIPES, pH 7.4. After washing in the same buffer, samples were progressively dehydrated in ethanol at -35C and embedded at the same temperature in Unicryl for 24 hr. Polymerization was brought about by diffuse UV irradiation at 360 nm for 24 hr at -35C, 24 hr at -20C, 24 hr at -10C, 24 hr at 4C, and finally 24 hr at RT. Experimental procedures on animals in this study were performed in compliance with Canadian Council on Animal Care guidelines.

Immunocytochemistry
Thin sections were immunocytochemically stained with protein A–gold using 10-nm gold particles at a dilution of OD_{520 nm} = 0.1 in PBS for 25 min at RT as previously reported (LeBel et al. 1998 ) and were counterstained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate for observation by electron microscopy. Three control incubations were performed: without primary antibodies, with preadsorbed antibodies, and with preimmune serum. The antigens used for preadsorption were the corresponding porcine hormones, or kidney microvilli in the case of MDP and DPP-IV antibodies. Under these control conditions, only a few randomly distributed gold grains were observed. Quantitative evaluation of labeling concentration over secretory granules was carried out by counting gold particles over 15 granules. Differences between groups were tested with Student's t-test and only significant differences (p<0.005) are mentioned. For double staining, sections labeled with one primary antibody (anti-MDP or anti-DPP-IV) and protein A–gold particles of 10 nm were submitted to controlled silver enhancement (AURION R-Gent Silver Enhancement Kit; Cedarlane Labs, Hornby, ON, Canada) for 3 min. Sections were rinsed and submitted to immunocytochemical staining with the second antibody (anti-PP or anti-glucagon) using 10-nm colloidal gold particles.

	Results

Top Summary Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited

Immunocytochemistry of MDP in the exocrine pancreas gave a clear localization of the protein in the membranes of the acinar cell secretory pathway, and particularly in the granule membrane and content (LeBel et al. 1998 ). In the endocrine portion of the pancreas, MDP was restricted to only one cell type, a type that is not a major constituent of the islet of Langerhans. As shown in Figure 1, the identity of the cell could not be determined from the morphology of its granules, one of the reasons being that the morphology of the pig endocrine pancreas differs markedly from that of rodents. For example, the typical morphology observed in rodent B-cell ß-granules, with a dense core surrounded by a clear halo, was not observed in the pig endocrine tissue (Figure 2a). The morphology of the pig ß-granule is very similar to that of the human (Like and Orci 1972 ). To determine the identity of the MDP-positive cell, immunocytochemical localization of five endocrine secretory products was carried out in the pig tissue. Figure 2b and Figure 2c show that only A-cells have granules with a prevailing round morphology. Granules of the other cell types have a less homogeneous morphology, like those of D-cells (Figure 2d), PP cells (Figure 2e), and enterochromaffin cells (EC cells) (Figure 2f). As previously shown by Poulsen et al. 1993 , we were able to confirm that the only endocrine pancreatic cell expressing DPP-IV was the A-cell (Figure 2c). DPP-IV is also totally absent from the exocrine pancreas (not shown).

View larger version (176K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Localization of MDP in the pig endocrine pancreas. Under low magnification (a) MDP immunoreactivity is confined to only one cell type (arrow) distinct in morphology from adjacent A-cells, B-cells, and from another unidentified cell (*) (b) An enlarged area of the positive cell in a shows MDP immunoreactivity associated with the secretory granule matrix. Labeling is uniform from one granule to another. Note the low background of labeling in the adjacent cell (*). Nu, nucleus.

View larger version (166K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Characterization of five pig pancreatic endocrine cell types. To clearly identify the MDP-positive cell, antibodies to five secretory products of pancreatic islet cells were used to distinguish the morphology associated with the secreted hormone. Anti-insulin strongly labeled B-cell granules (a) anti-glucagon A-cell granules (b) anti-somatostatin-28 D-cell granules (d) anti-pancreatic polypeptide PP-cell granules (e) and anti-serotonin EC cell granules (f). (c) The specific immunolocalization of DPP-IV in A-cells (Poulsen et al. 1993 ) was confirmed, showing that the labeling is low in some granules (arrowhead, winding arrow) and high in others (arrow). In D-cells, round dense granules (large arrow) and irregular light granules (small arrow) were similarly labeled for somatostatin-28.

Double labeling immunocytochemistry of MDP separately with each one of the five endocrine pancreatic secretory products led to the exclusive co-localization of MDP and PP (Figure 3). In PP cells, MDP could be observed in structures that may represent poorly preserved Golgi cisternæ (Figure 3b), in the granule contents, and in granules very close to the membranes, and could therefore be undergoing exocytosis (Figure 3c). In all these locations, MDP was mostly present in the lumen of these organelles (Figure 3a and Figure 3c) and was consequently seen secreted along with PP (Figure 3c). The presence in the lumen of these organelles of a presumably soluble form of a GPI-anchored membrane protein is somewhat unexpected but has previously been observed in the exocrine pancreas with GP-2 (Paquette et al. 1986 ) and MDP (Hooper et al. 1997a ; LeBel et al. 1998 ). Therefore, it was interesting to examine the localization of a differently anchored membrane protein.

View larger version (176K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. Co-localization of MDP and PP in pig pancreatic islet cells. (a) Double immunolabeling of PP cells with MDP antibodies (large particles) and PP antibodies (small particles) was performed. Most granules were positive for MDP (arrows). (b) Arrowheads show MDP in structures that could be Golgi cisternae, most of the signal being in the lumen of the cisternæ and little being associated with the membrane. (c) Granules in the close vicinity of the plasma membrane that may be in the process of exocytosis (arrows) are positive for PP and MDP. Nu, nucleus.

Localization of DPP-IV, which is a Type II membrane protein anchored by an uncleaved signal peptide, was performed. Figure 4 shows that, like MDP in PP cells, DPP-IV is present in the lumen of A-cell granules. The concentration of gold particles per µm² for DPP-IV was separately determined for granules that were electron-lucent and those that were electron-dense. The concentration was 195.24 ± 15.60/µm² in lucent granules, and 145.64 ± 15.25/µm² in dense granules, showing a significant decrease of DPP-IV immunoreactivity in dense granules. This decrease in reactivity could be due to masking of the antigen in denser granules but, on the contrary, glucagon immunoreactivity in the same granules increased very significantly. The concentration of gold particles for glucagon was 42.71 ± 7.47/µm² in electron-lucent granules, and 485.72 ± 29.28/µm² in electron-dense granules. Such a positive concentration of glucagon immunolabeling over dense granules suggests that maturation of the granules is taking place, as previously observed in the exocrine pancreatic secretory pathway (Bendayan 1984 ). Therefore, in contrast to glucagon, DPP-IV did not undergo concentration in the A-cell dense granules.

View larger version (166K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 4. Association of DPP-IV with A-cell electron-lucent granules. (a) Glucagon immunodetection in A-cells was much more intense in electron-dense granules (arrows) compared to electron-lucent granules (winding arrows). Conversely, immunocytochemical detection of DPP-IV in A-cells (b) was much stronger and uniform in lucent granules (winding arrows) than in dense granules (arrows), where it was very heterogeneous. (c) Co-localization of DPP-IV (large particles) and glucagon (small particles) in A-cells confirmed that light granules have a much higher signal for DPP-IV than glucagon (bent arrow). Many granules positive for glucagon and DPP-IV are very close to the membrane and could be in the process of exocytosis (arrows). A B-cell with a granule located close to the plasma membrane (winding arrow) shows the specificity of detection for DPP-IV and glucagon, as well as the low level of background.

In divergence with a previous report in the mouse (Rombout et al. 1987 ), no PP immunoreactivity could be detected in the pig A-cell granules (not shown).

	Discussion

Top Summary Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited

Maturation and processing of hormone precursors in endocrine cells are performed by a number of exo- and endoproteolytic proteases (Halban and Irminger 1994 ). In this respect, the endocrine pancreas is a particularly rich gland, secreting five different secretory products that are synthesized by five specialized cells. In addition to being endowed with the well-described protein convertase family of endoproteases, carboxypeptidases and the ubiquitous furin (Hook et al. 1994 ), the A-cell specifically contains DPP-IV in its secretory granules (Poulsen et al. 1993 ). Here we show by immunocytochemistry that DPP-IV is mostly soluble in granules of A-cells and consequently is secreted in the interstitial space of the islets of Langerhans. DPP-IV releases dipeptides from the N-terminus of proteins. Its cleavage specificity requires a Pro residue (or exceptionally Ala) to be at the C-terminus of the released dipeptide (see Trugnan et al. 1997 for review). According to its specificity, primary substrates for the peptidase in the -granule would be glucagon-like peptide-2 and the truncated glucagon-like peptide-1, two C-terminal byproducts of proglucagon processing. Although both peptides are good substrates for DPP-IV in vivo (Kieffer et al. 1995 ; Drucker et al. 1997 ), the acidic pH of the granule would make their hydrolysis by DPP-IV less likely in this location. The secretory nature of DPP-IV that we report, and the optimal pH of its activity, suggest that the protease could act on the secretory products released into the interstitial space by any of the five types of endocrine cells. In addition to the previously mentioned glucagon maturation byproducts, two other secretory products could be substrates for DPP-IV. These are the propeptides of somatostatin and PP that are specifically secreted by D-cells and PP-cells, respectively. In support for such a role of the secreted DPP-IV on PP are reports that the major form of neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity in the circulation is a 34-residue peptide constituted of residues 3–36 (Medeiros and Turner 1996 ). Neuropeptide Y is a peptide very similar in sequence and function to PP, which possesses the consensus Ala-Pro at the N-terminus for recognition by DPP-IV. For the somatostatin propeptide, there is only one report for such trimming of its N-terminus (Baldissera 1994 ). Finally, the release of DPP-IV in the interstitial space also suggests a role for the protease in the inactivation of cytokines and chemokines, many of which have the N-terminal consensus sequence (X-Pro) (Vanhoof et al. 1995 ). Evidence for an involvement of DPP-IV in anti-inflammatory and antiviral responses has accumulated (Proost et al. 1998 ), supporting such a role for DPP-IV in the endocrine pancreas.

The release of DPP-IV from the membrane is not a new feature for this protease. It has long been known that acidic conditions favor autolysis of the protein (Macnair and Kenny 1979 ) and that a soluble form of the protein is present in the circulation (Trugnan et al. 1997 ). The simple mode of membrane anchorage of DPP-IV by an uncleaved signal peptide reduces the task of releasing the peptidase to the hydrolysis of a single peptide bond. A number of proteins anchored by a single membrane-spanning polypeptide are also known to exist in soluble forms as a result of proteolytic cleavage by a family of proteases termed secretases (Hooper et al. 1997b ). It is very likely that the conditions of pH found in vivo in mature [pH 5.5 according to Dittie et al. 1997 ] and most particularly in immature granules, where it is lower (Orci et al. 1987 ), are close to those used in vitro (pH 4.5–5.0) to generate a soluble form of DPP-IV by autolysis (Macnair and Kenny 1979 ). The higher amount of DPP-IV in electron-lucent granules compared to electron-dense ones is a very interesting finding regarding the biogenesis of secretory granules. If the lower level of DPP-IV immunodetection in dense granules was not due to antigen masking, this suggests that the protein is sorted out of immature granules during maturation, a phenomenon that has been observed with proteins that are soluble under the acidic conditions of granules and that have weak or no affinity for the aggregated cargo. This pathway is called the constitutive-like secretory pathway. It was elegantly demonstrated with the insulin C-peptide (Arvan et al. 1991 ). The pathway operates when granules are in the process of maturation. According to this scenario, DPP-IV could then be released almost continuously from A-cells. An alternative to the former pathway to explain the decrease of DPP-IV in dense granules could be a degradation of DPP-IV in the endosomal/lysosomal compartment.

Like DPP-IV, MDP is also secreted in the interstitial space. To find a substrate for MDP is easier because the only identifiable one in the endocrine pancreas would be the dipeptide made of the two basic residues that specify the cleavage site of convertases. However, the release of these two basic residues from the C-terminal end of these proteolytic fragments has thus far been attributed to sequential hydrolysis by carboxypeptidases (Loh et al. 1993 ). Because exocrine pancreatic cells are capable of a full range of prohormone processing reactions without any need for it (Dickinson et al. 1993 ), it would not be surprising that in some endocrine cells MDP could be an example of such a remaining activity without real utility in processing endogenous secretory products. As for the release of MDP into the endocrine granule lumen, it is quite conceivable that a phospholipase could be involved in cleaving its GPI anchor and releasing the protein from the membrane. A phospholipase A activity has indeed been identified in the exocrine pancreatic acinar cell granule membrane that promotes such a release of MDP (Hooper et al. 1997a ; LeBel et al. 1998 ), but its purification and characterization have not yet been achieved.

	Acknowledgments

Supported by the Canadian Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, NSERC (Canada), FCAR (Québec) to DL, by the Medical Research Council of Great Britain to NMH, and by a NATO Collaborative Research Grant.

Received for publication August 21, 1998; accepted November 24, 1998.

	Literature Cited

Top Summary Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Literature Cited

Arvan P, Kuliawat R, Prabakaran D, Zavacki AM, Elahi D, Wang S, Pilkey D (1991) Protein discharge from immature secretory granules displays both regulated and constitutive characteristics. J Biol Chem 266:14171-14174[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Baldissera FG (1994) Differential processing of regulatory peptide precursors in pancreas and gut: studies of proglucagon and prosomatostatin processing. Danish Med Bull 41:79-92

Bendayan M (1984) Concentration of amylase along its secretory pathway in the pancreatic acinar cell as revealed by high resolution immunocytochemistry. Histochem J 16:85-108[Medline]

Dickinson CJ, Takeuchi T, Guo Y-J, Stadler BT, Yamada T (1993) Expression and processing of prohormones in nonendocrine cells. Am J Physiol 264:G553-560[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Dittié AS, Thomas L, Thomas G, Tooze SA (1997) Interaction of furin in immature secretory granules from neuroendocrine cells with the AP-1 adaptor complex is modulated by casein kinase II phosphorylation. EMBO J 16:4859-4870[Medline]

Drucker DJ, Shi Q, Crivici A, Sumner–Smith M, Tavares W, Hill M, DeForest L, Cooper S, Brubaker PL (1997) Regulation of the biological activity of glucagon-like peptide 2 in vivo by dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Nature Biotechnol 15:673-677[Medline]

Frohman L, Downs T, Heimer E, Felix A (1989) Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV and trypsin-like enzymatic degradation of human growth hormone-releasing hormone in plasma. J Clin Invest 83:1533-1540

Halban PA, Irminger JC (1994) Sorting and processing of secretory proteins. Biochem J 299:1-18

Hook VYH, Azaryan AV, Hwang S-R, Tezapsidis N (1994) Proteases and the emerging role of protease inhibitors in prohormone processing. FASEB J 8:1269-1278[Abstract]

Hooper NM, Cook S, Lainé J, LeBel D (1997a) Identification of membrane dipeptidase as a major glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol-anchored protein of the pancreatic zymogen granule membrane, and evidence for its release by phospholipase A. Biochem J 324:151-157

Hooper NM, Karran EH, Turner AJ (1997b) Membrane protein secretases. Biochem J 321:265-279

Howell S, Brewis IA, Hooper NM, Kenny AJ, Turner AJ (1993) Mosaic expression of membrane peptidases by confluent cultures of Caco-2 cells. FEBS Lett 317:109-112[Medline]

Keynan S, Hooper NM, Turner AJ (1996) Molecular and functional aspects of membrane dipeptidase. In Hooper NM, ed. Zinc Metalloproteases in Health and Disease. London, Taylor & Francis, 285-309

Kieffer TJ, Mcintosh CHS, Pederson RA (1995) Degradation of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and truncated glucagon-like peptide 1 in vitro and in vivo by dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Endocrinology 136:3585-3596[Abstract]

LeBel D, Grondin G, Cook S, Hooper NM (1998) Membrane dipeptidase in the pig exocrine pancreas: ultrastructural localization and secretion. J Histochem Cytochem 46:841-846[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Like AA, Orci L (1972) Embryogenesis of the human pancreatic islets: a light and electron microscopic study. Diabetes 21:511-534

Littlewood M, Hooper NM, Turner AJ (1989) Ectoenzymes of the kidney microvillar membrane. Affinity purification, characterization and localization of the phospholipase C-solubilized form of renal dipeptidase. Biochem J 257:361-367[Medline]

Loh YP, Beinfeld MC, Birch NP (1993) Proteolytic processing of prohormones and proneuropeptides. In Loh YP, ed. Mechanisms of Intracellular Trafficking and Processing of Proproteins. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 179-224

Macnair DC, Kenny AJ (1979) Proteins of the kidney microvillar membrane. The amphipathic form of dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Biochem J 179:379-395[Medline]

Medeiros MS, Turner AJ (1996) Metabolism and functions of neuropeptide Y. Neurochem Res 21:1125-1132[Medline]

Mentlain R, Gallwitz B, Schmidt W (1993) Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV hydrolyses gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), glucagon-like peptide-1(7-36) amide, peptide histidine methionine (PHM) and is responsible for their degradation in human serum. Eur J Biochem 214:829-835[Medline]

Mentlein R, Dahms P, Grandt D, Kruger R (1993) Proteolytic processing of neuropeptide Y and peptide YY by dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Regul Pept 49:133-134[Medline]

Orci L, Ravazzola M, Anderson RGW (1987) The condensing vacuole of exocrine cells is more acidic than the mature secretory vesicle. Nature 326:77-79[Medline]

Paquette J, Leblond FA, Beattie M, LeBel D (1986) Reducing conditions induce a total degradation of the major zymogen granule membrane protein in both its membranous and its soluble form. Immunochemical quantitation of the two forms. Biochem Cell Biol 64:456-462[Medline]

Poulsen MD, Hansen GH, Dabelsteen E, Hoyer PE, Norén O, Sjöström H (1993) Dipeptidyl peptidase IV is sorted to the secretory granules in pancreatic islet A-cells. J Histochem Cytochem 41:81-88[Abstract]

Proost P, De Meester I, Schols D, Struyf S, Lambeir AM, Wuyts A, Opdenakker G, De Clercq E, Scharpe S, Van Damme J (1998) Amino-terminal truncation of chemokines by CD26/dipeptidylpeptidase IV—conversion of RANTES into a potent inhibitor of monocyte chemotaxis and HIV-1-infection. J Biol Chem 273:7222-7227[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Ravazzola M, Benoit R, Ling N, Guillemain R, Orci L (1983) Immunocytochemical localization of prosomatostatin fragments in maturing and mature secretory granules of pancreatic and gastrointestinal D cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80:215-218[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Rombout JH, Abad ME, Binkhorst FM, Taverne–Thiele JJ (1987) Coexistence of pancreatic polypeptide (PP)- and glucagon-immunoreactivity in pancreatic endocrine cells of mouse. Histochemistry 87:1-6[Medline]

Trugnan G, Aït-Slimane T, David F, Baricault L, Berbar T, Lenoir C, Sapin C (1997) Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV/CD26): biochemistry and control of cell-surface expression. In Kenny AJ, Boustead CM, eds. Cell-surface Peptidases in Health and Disease. Oxford, BIOS Scientific Publishers, 203-217

Vanhoof G, Goossens F, De Meester I, Hendriks D, Scharpe S (1995) Proline motifs in peptides and their biological processing. FASEB J 9:736-744[Abstract]

CiteULike    Complore    Connotea    Del.icio.us    Digg    Reddit    Technorati    What's this?

This article has been cited by other articles:

				S. A. Hinke, J. A. Pospisilik, H.-U. Demuth, S. Mannhart, K. Kuhn-Wache, T. Hoffmann, E. Nishimura, R. A. Pederson, and C. H. S. McIntosh Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPIV/CD26) Degradation of Glucagon. CHARACTERIZATION OF GLUCAGON DEGRADATION PRODUCTS AND DPIV-RESISTANT ANALOGS J. Biol. Chem., February 11, 2000; 275(6): 3827 - 3834. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Grondin, G. Articles by LeBel, D. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Grondin, G. Articles by LeBel, D. Social Bookmarking                      What's this?

Guidelines | Subscriptions | About | exPRESS - Current - Archive | Business Information | Contact